Self-Control

Scientific studies directly related to the issue of self control and willpower have been conducted by Walter Mischel and Roy Baumeister.

Mischel conducted one of the most famous experimental psychology studies which is known as the marshmellow study. This simple study tested the ability of young children to delay gratification and then followed the children through adulthood (see funny re-enactments here). Four year old students were shown treats (marshmallows, cookies) and told they could have one at any time by ringing a bell. By simply waiting 15 minutes however, they could have two. They were left in an empty classroom with the teacher outside. Only 30% could wait the full 15 minutes. These participants were followed into adulthood. This simple test of self-control proved to be a better predictor of future academic success than their IQ score.  Mischel suggests that our ability to suffer some in the short-term in pursuit of long-term goals is a defining feature, not just of successful individuals, but also of our species in general (Mischel & Ayduk, 2004).

Baumeister coined the concept of 'ego depletion', and has conducted studies that point to willpower as limited resource that depletes in the short-term with it's use. He has written a popular book for the general public on the subject. According to Baumeister:

In testing several competing theories about self-regulation, we consistently
found that people performed relatively poorly at almost any self-control task if they had recently performed a different self-control task (Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Muraven, & Tice, 1998; Muraven & Baumeister, 2000).

Additional research related to self-control:
Yale university researchers found that the ability to delay gratification depends in part on the anterior prefrontal cortex (abstract problem solving, keeping track of goals) – ‘far-sightedness’. Many studies point to the lateral region of the PFC as playing a key role in integration, self-control and working memory in general.

Limits of cognitive processing/control- In a study conducted by Stanford professor Baba Shiv, one group was asked to memorize a two-digit number while another group was asked to memorize a seven -digit number. While still holding the number in memory the groups were offered one of two snacks (chocolate cake or fruit salad). The group with the more difficult memory task was significantly less likely to resist the cake option.

Those most confident in their ability to resist temptation are actually the most likely to give in to their impulses. This was shown in four experiments by Loran Nordgren of Northwestern U. We are poor predictors of how we are likely to act when circumstances change. When not hungry we overestimate our ability to resist treats when hungry (frontal cortex runs on glucose). When not tired we overestimate our ability to think clearly in a tired state. Self awareness then becomes the best self-control strategy. Having enough self-knowledge helps to avoid those situations in which we lack the control to resist. An example could be eating something before shopping resulting in having mostly healthy foods in the house.

Baumeister refers to the idea of short-term sacrifice for long-term gain as "enlightened self interest" and he relates this to free will. The talk of 'ego-depletion' and 'enlightened self interest' seem directly related to ideas from eastern philosophy. Both Taoist and Buddhist thought have a concept where letting go of the idea that there is a self that is separate from the natural world move one in the direction of enlightenment. There is a difference however, as Baumeisters 'ego-depletion' occurs due to the application of effort to a task. This seems to oppose the Taoist concept of 'wu-wei' which allows one to find harmony and flow with nature through 'non-action'. I think however that we can bring these seemingly opposing ideas together.

The ability to flow in a given environment without conscious effort requires practice (and therefore a type of effort). We don't consciously think about walking now, but we had to learn to do so when we were young. When an expert musician or athlete engages in their craft they may experience this sense of effortless action pointed to by 'wu-wei', but again this is the result of years of practice. The idea of practice itself is also central to eastern philosophy often through meditation or mindfulness techniques. The practice of meditation may enhance our ability to sustain awareness (‘far-sightedness’) without over analyzing the thoughts with too much self-consciousness. 

I think the ideas of Baumeister, and Mischel, and those of eastern philosophy are each valid insights into the same natural dynamic. They are just made from differing reference frames.

The eastern philosophical frame suggests that by learning to watch the mind through a receptive approach (rather than forcefully directing it) we can appreciate the way it connects us to our natural environment. This can be beneficial in many ways. It can help us recognize how certain environments effect our emotional climate, and how our emotional climate effects our actions. Science writer Jonah Lehrer describes this idea:

 ‘One final thought: In recent decades, psychology and neuroscience have severely eroded classical notions of free will. The unconscious mind, it turns out, is most of the mind. And yet, we can still control the spotlight of attention, focusing on those ideas that will help us succeed. In the end, this may be the only thing we can control. We don't have to look at the marshmallow.’ –Jonah Lehrer

The Baumeister research could make excellent use of skills gained by this type of practice. Since willpower is limited we could better ration its use. The various findings from modern science can also serve as a reminder to the many ways our introspection can fool us. This should serve as a constraint for placing to much value on any single ideology or way of knowing, since all ways of knowing are filtered through our perceptions.

“A journey is like marriage. The certain way to be wrong is to think you control it.”

-John Steinbeck, ”Travels with Charley in Search of America”, Part One, Penguin Books (1980)

"Joy and anger, sorrow and happiness, plans and regrets, transformations and stagnations, unguarded abandonment and deliberate posturing—music flowing out of hollows, mushrooms of billowing steam! Day and night they alternate before us, but no one knows whence they sprout. That is enough! That is enough! Is it from all of this, presented ceaselessly day and night, that we come to exist? Without that there would be no me, to be sure, but then again without me there would be nothing selected out from it all. This is certainly something close to hand, and yet we do not know what makes it so. If there is some controller behind it all, it is peculiarly devoid of any manifest sign. Its ability to flow and to stop makes its presence plausible, but even then it shows no definite form. That would make it a reality with no definite form. The hundred bones, the nine openings, the six internal organs are all present here as my body. Which one is most dear to me? Do you delight in all equally, or do you have some favorite among them? Or are they all mere servants and concubines?

Are these servants and concubines unable to govern each other? Or do they take turns as master and servant? If there exists a genuine ruler among them, then whether we could find out the facts about him or not would neither add to nor subtract from that genuineness."

Zhuangzi; Ziporyn, Brook (2009-03-15). Zhuangzi: The Essential Writings, With Selections from Traditional Commentaries (pp. 10-11). Hackett Publishing. Kindle Edition.